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Evidence for 28 possible compilers in 1957

May 21, 2017 2 comments

In two earlier posts I discussed the early compilers for languages that are still widely used today and a report from 1963 showing how nothing has changed in programming languages

The Handbook of Automation Computation and Control Volume 2, published in 1959, contains some interesting information. In particular Table 23 (below) is a list of “Automatic Coding Systems” (containing over 110 systems from 1957, or which 54 have a cross in the compiler column):

Computer System Name or      Developed by        Code M.L. Assem Inter Comp Oper-Date Indexing Fl-Pt Symb. Algeb.
           Acronym   
IBM 704 AFAC                 Allison G.M.         C                      X    Sep 57    M2       M    2      X
        CAGE                 General Electric                 X          X    Nov 55    M2       M    2
        FORC                 Redstone Arsenal                            X    Jun 57    M2       M    2      X
        FORTRAN              IBM                  R                      X    Jan 57    M2       M    2      X
        NYAP                 IBM                              X               Jan 56    M2       M    2
        PACT IA              Pact Group                                  X    Jan 57    M2       M    1
        REG-SYMBOLIC         Los Alamos                       X               Nov 55    M2       M    1
        SAP                  United Aircraft      R           X               Apr 56    M2       M    2 
        NYDPP                Servo Bur. Corp.                 X               Sep 57    M2       M    2 
        KOMPILER3            UCRL Livermore                              X    Mar 58    M2       M    2      X
IBM 701 ACOM                 Allison G.M.         C                X          Dec 54    S1       S    0
        BACAIC               Boeing Seattle       A           X          X    Jul 55             S    1      X
        BAP                  UC Berkeley                X     X               May 57                  2
        DOUGLAS              Douglas SM                       X               May 53             S    1
        DUAL                 Los Alamos                 X          X          Mar 53             S    1
        607                  Los Alamos                       X               Sep 53                  1
        FLOP                 Lockheed Calif.            X     X    X          Mar 53             S    1 
        JCS 13               Rand Corp.                       X               Dec 53                  1
        KOMPILER 2           UCRL Livermore                              X    Oct 55    S2            1      X
        NAA ASSEMBLY         N. Am. Aviation                       X
        PACT I               Pact Groupb          R                      X    Jun 55    S2            1
        QUEASY               NOTS Inyokern                         X          Jan 55             S
        QUICK                Douglas ES                            X          Jun 53             S    0
        SHACO                Los Alamos                            X          Apr 53             S    1
        SO 2                 IBM                              X               Apr 53                  1
        SPEEDCODING          IBM                  R           X    X          Apr 53    S1       S    1
IBM 705-1, 2 ACOM            Allison G.M.         C                X          Apr 57    S1            0
        AUTOCODER            IBM                  R    X      X          X    Dec 56             S    2
        ELI                  Equitable Life       C                X          May 57    S1            0
        FAIR                 Eastman Kodak                         X          Jan 57             S    0
        PRINT I              IBM                  R    X      X    X          Oct 56    82       S    2
        SYMB. ASSEM.         IBM                              X               Jan 56             S    1
        SOHIO                Std. Oil of Ohio          X      X    X          May 56    S1       S    1
        FORTRAN              IBM-Guide            A                      X    Nov 58    S2       S    2      X
        IT                   Std. Oil of Ohio     C                      X              S2       S    1      X
        AFAC                 Allison G.M.         C                      X              S2       S    2      X
IBM 705-3 FORTRAN            IBM-Guide            A                      X    Dec 58    M2       M    2      X
        AUTOCODER            IBM                  A           X          X    Sep 58             S    2
IBM 702 AUTOCODER            IBM                       X      X          X    Apr 55             S    1
        ASSEMBLY             IBM                              X               Jun 54                  1
        SCRIPT G. E.         Hanford              R    X      X    X     X    Jul 55    Sl       S    1 
IBM 709 FORTRAN              IBM                  A                      X    Jan 59    M2       M    2      X
        SCAT                 IBM-Share            R           X          X    Nov 58    M2       M    2
IBM 650 ADES II              Naval Ord. Lab                              X    Feb 56    S2       S    1      X
        BACAIC               Boeing Seattle       C           X    X     X    Aug 56             S    1      X
        BALITAC              M.I.T.                    X      X          X    Jan 56    Sl            2
        BELL L1              Bell Tel. Labs            X           X          Aug 55    Sl       S    0
        BELL L2,L3           Bell Tel. Labs            X           X          Sep 55    Sl       S    0
        DRUCO I              IBM                                   X          Sep 54             S    0
        EASE II              Allison G.M.                     X    X          Sep 56    S2       S    2
        ELI                  Equitable Life       C                X          May 57    Sl            0
        ESCAPE               Curtiss-Wright                   X    X     X    Jan 57    Sl       S    2
        FLAIR                Lockheed MSD, Ga.         X           X          Feb 55    Sl       S    0
        FOR TRANSIT          IBM-Carnegie Tech.   A                      X    Oct 57    S2       S    2      X
        IT                   Carnegie Tech.       C                      X    Feb 57    S2       S    1      X
        MITILAC              M.I.T.                    X           X          Jul 55    Sl       S    2
        OMNICODE             G. E. Hanford                         X     X    Dec 56    Sl       S    2
        RELATIVE             Allison G.M.                     X               Aug 55    Sl       S    1
        SIR                  IBM                                   X          May 56             S    2
        SOAP I               IBM                              X               Nov 55                  2
	SOAP II              IBM                  R           X               Nov 56    M        M    2
        SPEED CODING         Redstone Arsenal          X           X          Sep 55    Sl       S    0
        SPUR                 Boeing Wichita            X      X    X          Aug 56    M        S    1
        FORTRAN (650T)       IBM                  A                      X    Jan 59    M2       M    2
Sperry Rand 1103A COMPILER I  Boeing Seattle                  X          X    May 57             S    1      X
        FAP                  Lockheed MSD              X           X          Oct 56    Sl       S    0
        MISHAP               Lockheed MSD                     X               Oct 56    M1       S    1
        RAWOOP-SNAP          Ramo-Wooldridge                  X    X          Jun 57    M1       M    1
        TRANS-USE            Holloman A.F.B.                  X               Nov 56    M1       S    2
        USE                  Ramo-Wooldridge      R           X          X    Feb 57    M1       M    2
        IT                   Carn. Tech.-R-W      C                      X    Dec 57    S2       S    1      X
        UNICODE              R Rand St. Paul      R                      X    Jan 59    S2       M    2      X
Sperry Rand 1103 CHIP        Wright A.D.C.             X           X          Feb 56    S1       S    0
        FLIP/SPUR            Convair San Diego         X           X          Jun 55    SI       S    0
        RAWOOP               Ramo-Wooldridge      R           X               Mar 55    S1            1
        8NAP                 Ramo-Wooldridge      R           X    X          Aug 55    S1       S    1
Sperry Rand Univac I and II AO Remington Rand          X      X          X    May 52    S1       S    1
        Al                   Remington Rand            X      X          X    Jan 53    S1       S    1
        A2                   Remington Rand            X      X          X    Aug 53    S1       S    1
        A3,ARITHMATIC        Remington Rand       C    X      X          X    Apr 56    SI       S    1
        AT3,MATHMATIC        Remington Rand       C           X          X    Jun 56    SI       S    2      X
        BO,FLOWMATIC         Remington Rand       A    X      X          X    Dec 56    S2       S    2
        BIOR                 Remington Rand            X      X          X    Apr 55                  1
        GP                   Remington Rand       R    X      X          X    Jan 57    S2       S    1
        MJS (UNIVAC I)       UCRL Livermore            X      X               Jun 56                  1
        NYU,OMNIFAX          New York Univ.                              X    Feb 54             S    1
        RELCODE              Remington Rand            X      X               Apr 56                  1
        SHORT CODE           Remington Rand            X           X          Feb 51             S    1
        X-I                  Remington Rand       C    X      X               Jan 56                  1
        IT                   Case Institute       C                      X              S2       S    1      X
        MATRIX MATH          Franklin Inst.                              X    Jan 58    
Sperry Rand File Compo ABC   R Rand St. Paul                                  Jun 58
Sperry Rand Larc K5          UCRL Livermore                   X          X              M2       M    2      X
        SAIL                 UCRL Livermore                   X                         M2       M    2
Burroughs Datatron 201, 205 DATACODEI Burroughs                          X    Aug 57    MS1      S    1
        DUMBO                Babcock and Wilcox                    X     X   
        IT                   Purdue Univ.         A                      X    Jul 57    S2       S    1      X
        SAC                  Electrodata               X      X               Aug 56             M    1
        UGLIAC               United Gas Corp.                      X          Dec 56             S    0
                               Dow Chemical                        X
        STAR                 Electrodata                      X
Burroughs UDEC III UDECIN-I  Burroughs                             X              57    M/S       S   1
        UDECOM-3             Burroughs                                   X        57    M         S   1
M.I.T. Whirlwind ALGEBRAIC   M.I.T.               R                      X              S2        S   1      X
        COMPREHENSIVE        M.I.T.                    X      X    X          Nov 52    Sl        S   1
        SUMMER SESSION       M.I.T.                                X          Jun 53    Sl        S   1
Midac   EASIAC               Univ. of Michigan                     X     X    Aug 54    SI        S
        MAGIC                Univ. of Michigan         X      X          X    Jan 54    Sl        S
Datamatic ABC I              Datamatic Corp.                             X   
Ferranti TRANSCODE           Univ. of Toronto     R           X    X     X    Aug 54    M1        S
Illiac DEC INPUT             Univ. of Illinois    R           X               Sep 52    SI        S
Johnniac EASY FOX            Rand Corp.           R           X               Oct 55              S
Norc NORC COMPILER           Naval Ord. Lab                   X          X    Aug 55    M2        M
Seac BASE 00                 Natl. Bur. Stds.          X           X
        UNIV. CODE           Moore School                                X    Apr 55

Chart Symbols used:

Code
R = Recommended for this computer, sometimes only for heavy usage.
C = Common language for more than one computer.
A = System is both recommended and has common language.
 
Indexing
M = Actual Index registers or B boxes in machine hardware.
S = Index registers simulated in synthetic language of system.
1 = Limited form of indexing, either stopped undirectionally or by one word only, or having
certain registers applicable to only certain variables, or not compound (by combination of
contents of registers).
2 = General form, any variable may be indexed by anyone or combination of registers which may
be freely incremented or decremented by any amount.
 
Floating point
M = Inherent in machine hardware.
S = Simulated in language.
 
Symbolism
0 = None.
1 = Limited, either regional, relative or exactly computable.
2 = Fully descriptive English word or symbol combination which is descriptive of the variable
or the assigned storage.
 
Algebraic
A single continuous algebraic formula statement may be made. Processor has mechanisms for
applying associative and commutative laws to form operative program.
 
M.L. = Machine language.
Assem. = Assemblers.
Inter. = Interpreters.
Compl. = Compilers.

Are the compilers really compilers as we know them today, or is this terminology that has not yet settled down? The computer terminology chapter refers readers interested in Assembler, Compiler and Interpreter to the entry for Routine:

Routine. A set of instructions arranged in proper sequence to cause a computer to perform a desired operation or series of operations, such as the solution of a mathematical problem.

Compiler (compiling routine), an executive routine which, before the desired computation is started, translates a program expressed in pseudo-code into machine code (or into another pseudo-code for further translation by an interpreter).

Assemble, to integrate the subroutines (supplied, selected, or generated) into the main routine, i.e., to adapt, to specialize to the task at hand by means of preset parameters; to orient, to change relative and symbolic addresses to absolute form; to incorporate, to place in storage.

Interpreter (interpretive routine), an executive routine which, as the computation progresses, translates a stored program expressed in some machine-like pseudo-code into machine code and performs the indicated operations, by means of subroutines, as they are translated. …”

The definition of “Assemble” sounds more like a link-load than an assembler.

When the coding system has a cross in both the assembler and compiler column, I suspect we are dealing with what would be called an assembler today. There are 28 crosses in the Compiler column that do not have a corresponding entry in the assembler column; does this mean there were 28 compilers in existence in 1957? I can imagine many of the languages being very simple (the fashionability of creating programming languages was already being called out in 1963), so producing a compiler for them would be feasible.

The citation given for Table 23 contains a few typos. I think the correct reference is: Bemer, Robert W. “The Status of Automatic Programming for Scientific Problems.” Proceedings of the Fourth Annual Computer Applications Symposium, 107-117. Armour Research Foundation, Illinois Institute of Technology, Oct. 24-25, 1957.

The compiler/interpreter distinction

September 8, 2015 No comments

What is the difference between compiled and interpreted programs?

In the good-old-days the distinction was easy to make: compiled code is executed by hardware while interpreted code is executed by software.

These days it can be very difficult to decide whether a program will be executed by hardware or software, and in some cases both may occur. More complicated cpus implement some of their instructions in micro-code (software control of very low level hardware resources) and the virtual machines specified for software execution can be implemented in hardware (an interesting project for a group of talented students in their summer holidays wanting to learn about ASICs).

Some people make a distinction based on the abstraction level of the cpu specification, e.g., very high level abstraction means the code must be interpreted. In practice the implementation of a cpu specification in hardware or software is an economic decision (software may be slow, but its a lot cheaper to implement).

I think there is a compiler/interpreter distinction, but the difference is not about how code is executed (the hardware/software distinction is a convenient difference that is easy to explain).

The compiler/interpreter distinction is a difference of responsibility. Compilers treat programs like the Spartans treated their children, they are bundled into a file of the appropriate format and left for the Operating system to load into memory and point the cpu at the first instruction (a cpu’s one interest is executing the sequences of instructions pointed to by the program counter). Interpreters are more like dotting nannies, organizing the provision of memory and on call to provide access to the desired resources.

Sometimes a language is classified as an interpreted language. There is no such thing as an interpreted language, only languages which are much more easily implemented using an interpreter than a compiler.

The performance of the Spartan approach may be very desirable, but the cost of achieving it can be very high.

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Go faster R for Google’s summer of code 2012

March 28, 2012 5 comments

The R Foundation has been accepted for Google’s summer of code and I thought I would suggest a few ideas for projects. My interests are in optimization and source code analysis, so obviously the suggestions involve these topics.

There are an infinite number of possible optimizations that can be applied to code (well, at least more than the number of atoms in the known universe). The first job for any optimization project is to find the common characteristics of the code; once these are known the available resources can be concentrated on improving the performance of these common cases (as they evolve optimizers necessarily attack less frequently occurring constructs and in rare cases address a previously unnoticed common pattern of behavior).

What are the common characteristics of R programs? I have no idea and have not seen any published empirical analysis on the subject. Analysing the characteristics of the R source code ecosystem would make a very good summer project. The analysis could be static, based purely on the source, or dynamic, looking at the runtime characteristics. The purpose of analyse is to gain a general understanding of the characteristics of R code and to investigate whether specific kinds of optimizations might be worthwhile. Often optimizations are suggested by the results of the analysis and in some cases optimization possibilities that were thought to be worthwhile turn out to have little benefit. I will stick my neck out and suggest a few optimizations that I think might be worthwhile.

  • Reducing object copying through last usage analysis. In R function arguments are passed using call-by-value, that is a copy of the argument is made and passed to the called function. For large arguments call-by-value is very time consuming and if the value of the argument is not used after the called function returns the copy operation is redundant. I think it would be a worthwhile optimization for the R compiler to replace call-by-value with call-by-reference in those cases where the current argument is not read again and is modified during the call (the R implementation uses copy-on-write so there is overhead minimal overhead if the argument is only ever read); analysis is needed to verify this hunch.
  • Operations on short vectors. Many processors have instructions that simultaneously perform the same operation on a small number of values (e.g., the Intel/AMD SSE instructions). If it is possible to figure out that the two vectors involved in an add/subtract/multiple/etc are short, the same length, do not contain any NA, then a ‘short-operation’ instruction could be generated (when running on processors without the necessary support the R interpreter would implement these the same way as the longer forms). Analysis is needed to find out how often short vector operations occur in practice.
  • Do R programs spend most of their time executing in C/Fortran routines or in R code? If the answer is C/Fortran and there is some set of functions that are called frequently then it may be worthwhile having versions of these that are tuned to the common case (whatever that might be). If the answer is R then what is the distribution pattern of R operations? There is a lot that can be done to speed up the R interpreter, but that project will need a lot more effort than is available in a summer of code and we need to get some idea of what the benefits for the general population might be.

To increase coverage of R usage the measurement tools should be made available for people to download and run on their own R code, and hopefully forwarding the output back some central collection point. For maximum portability this means writing the static analysis tools in R. By their very nature the dynamic analysis measurements have to be made via changes to the R system itself, getting users to download and use prebuilt binaries (or building from source) has always been fraught with problems; it is always hard o get users to buy into helping out with dynamic measurements.

Sophisticated static analysis consumes lots of compute resources. However, R programs tend to be short, so the required resources are unlikely to be that great in R’s case; even writing the analysis in R should not cause the resource requirements to be that excessive.

The only other language likely to share many of R’s language usage characteristics that I can think is APL. There have been a few published papers on APL usage, but these were not that wide ranging and probably not of much use. Perhaps somebody who worked for a now defunct APL compiler company has a copy of in-house performance analysis reports they can make available.